What Did Vikings Eat and Drink?
Discover the everyday food and drink of Viking-Age Scandinavia, from bread and fish to meat and mead, with archaeological and saga evidence.
The Vikings ate a varied diet based on the products of Scandinavian agriculture, fishing, and animal husbandry, supplemented by trade and the products of the hunt. The principal foods were bread, porridge, fish, meat, and dairy products; the principal drinks were mead, ale, and milk. The image of the Viking feast is one of the most famous in the medieval Scandinavian tradition, and the archaeological and literary evidence gives a clear picture of the food and drink of the Viking Age. The most common meal of an ordinary Viking was a porridge of barley or oats, with a piece of fish or meat, and a horn of ale or mead. The most elaborate meal was a great feast, with many courses, many drinks, and many toasts.
The Principal Foods
The principal food of the Viking Age was bread, baked from barley, oats, or rye. The bread was a dense, flat bread, baked on a stone or in a hearth. The bread was a staple of the Viking diet, and it was eaten at almost every meal. The bread was also used as a plate, in a way that is familiar from the medieval Scandinavian sources: a thin piece of bread was placed on the table, and the food was placed on the bread, and the bread was eaten at the end of the meal.
The principal food was also porridge, made from barley or oats, boiled in water or milk. The porridge was the most common meal of the ordinary Viking, and it was eaten at any time of day. The porridge was sometimes flavored with butter, salt, or dried berries, and it was a staple of the Viking diet.
Fish was a major part of the Viking diet. The most common fish were cod, herring, salmon, and trout, all of which were caught in the rivers and the seas of Scandinavia. The fish was preserved by drying, by salting, or by smoking, and it was eaten throughout the year. Fish was also a major part of the diet in the winter, when fresh meat was scarce.
Meat was also an important part of the Viking diet. The most common meats were pork, beef, and mutton, all of which were raised in Scandinavia. The meat was preserved by smoking, by salting, or by drying, and it was eaten at feasts and at the major religious festivals. Meat was also a major part of the diet of the wealthy, and the great feasts of the chieftains were the occasions of much meat-eating.
Dairy products were also important. The most common were butter, cheese, and skyr (a kind of yogurt or fresh cheese, still eaten in Iceland). The dairy products were made from cow’s milk, sheep’s milk, or goat’s milk, and they were eaten throughout the year. The dairy products were a major source of fat and protein in the Viking diet.
Fruits and Vegetables
The fruits and vegetables of the Viking Age were limited, in part, by the climate. The most common were berries (lingonberries, blueberries, raspberries, cloudberries), apples (where they could be grown), nuts (hazelnuts, walnuts), and root vegetables (carrots, turnips, parsnips). The vegetables were usually boiled, and the berries were usually eaten fresh or preserved in whey.
The most common fruit was the apple, which was a luxury in Scandinavia. The apples were eaten fresh, or they were preserved in whey or in honey. The apple was also a status symbol, and the image of the apple as a symbol of fertility and abundance is preserved in the medieval Scandinavian sources. The image of the apple is preserved in the Prose Edda, in which the goddess Iðunn keeps the apples of youth that keep the gods young.
The most common berries were the lingonberry and the blueberry, both of which are native to Scandinavia. The berries were eaten fresh, or they were preserved in whey, in honey, or in water. The berries were a major source of vitamin C in the Viking diet, and they were an important part of the diet of the ordinary Viking.
The Principal Drinks
The principal drink of the Viking Age was ale, a beer made from barley, hopped and fermented. The ale was a staple of the Viking diet, and it was drunk at every meal. The ale was made in a large cauldron, and it was drunk from horns or from wooden cups. The ale was often flavored with herbs or with honey, and it was a major source of the calories in the Viking diet.
The most famous drink of the Viking Age is mead, a fermented drink made from honey, water, and sometimes spices. The mead was a luxury drink, drunk at feasts and at the great religious festivals. The mead was associated with the gods in the medieval Scandinavian sources, and the mead of poetry is one of the central images in the Prose Edda.
The mead of poetry, in the Prose Edda’s Skáldskaparmál, is a drink that gives the gift of poetry to whoever drinks it. The mead is brewed from the blood of the wise being Kvasir, and the gods keep it in three vats. The mead is stolen by the giant Suttungr and given to his daughter Gunnlöð, who is then seduced by Odin and gives him a draught of the mead. The image of the mead of poetry is one of the most famous in the Norse tradition, and it has been the subject of modern interpretation.
The third principal drink was milk, usually from cows, but also from sheep and goats. The milk was drunk fresh, or it was curdled into cheese, or it was used to make bland, a mixture of milk and water. The milk was a major source of protein and fat in the Viking diet, and it was a staple of the diet of the ordinary Viking.
The Feast
The Viking feast is one of the most famous images in the medieval Scandinavian tradition. The feast is described in many of the sagas, and the image is consistent: a long table, a great hall, a chieftain in the high seat, and many courses of food and many drinks of ale and mead.
The most famous description is in the Younger Edda of Snorri Sturluson, in which the gods feast in Aegir’s hall. The feast is a central event in the mythology, and the image is preserved in many of the sagas. The feast is, in this sense, a central image of the Norse imagination: a community, gathered around a table, sharing food and drink.
The feast had a specific structure. The most important event was the bragafull (“bragging cup”), a toast in which the chieftain made a vow and then drank. The vow could be of any kind — a vow of vengeance, a vow of love, a vow of heroism — and the image of the chieftain making the vow was one of the most famous in the medieval Scandinavian sources.
The most famous bragafull in the saga tradition is the one made by the Icelandic poet Egill Skallagrímsson in the Egils saga. The poet, having been insulted by the Norwegian king Eiríkr Bloodaxe, makes a toast and a vow: he will kill the king, or he will be killed, and the result will be that the king’s head will be mounted on a stake. The image is one of the most famous in the saga tradition, and it has been the subject of modern interpretation.
The Food and Drink of the Gods
The food and drink of the gods is described in many of the eddic and skaldic sources. The most famous is the food of Valhalla, where the Einherjar eat the boar Sæhrímnir and drink the mead of the goat Heiðrún. The boar is cooked each day, and is whole again the next morning, and the goat produces an endless supply of mead. The image is one of the gods’ hall as a place of endless feasting, and the image has been the subject of modern interpretation.
The food and drink of the gods is also a focus of the Darraðarljóð (“The Song of the Valkyries”), a poem preserved in Njáls saga. The poem describes the Valkyries weaving at a loom, choosing the slain, and the image of the loom is associated with the choice of the dead. The image is one of the great moments of the saga literature, and the food and drink of the gods is part of the image.
The Archaeological Evidence
The archaeological evidence for the Viking diet is rich. The most important finds are in the Viking-Age towns of Birka (in Sweden), Kaupang (in Norway), Hedeby (in Denmark), and Dublin (in Ireland). The towns were the principal centers of trade in the Viking Age, and the archaeological evidence from the towns gives a clear picture of the food and drink of the Viking Age.
The most important evidence is the animal bones found in the towns. The bones of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, and poultry are common, and the bones of fish (especially cod and herring) are very common. The bones are evidence of the diet of the Viking Age, and the evidence appears in the medieval sources.
The evidence for plant foods is less rich, but it includes the seeds of barley, oats, rye, and flax, all of which were cultivated in the Viking Age. The seeds are evidence of the agriculture of the Viking Age, and they are consistent with the medieval sources.
The Food and Drink of the Voyagers
The food and drink of the Viking voyagers is a special case. The Vikings, on their long voyages, had to take food and drink with them. The most common provisions were dried fish, dried meat, hard bread, butter, and cheese. The provisions were stored in casks, and they were eaten throughout the voyage.
The most famous description of Viking voyage provisions is in the Saga of the Greenlanders and the Saga of Eiríkr the Red, which describe the voyages of Leif Erikson and other Norse voyagers to Vinland. The provisions are described as being sufficient for the voyage, and the image of the Norse voyagers with their provisions is one of the most famous in the saga tradition.
The food and drink of the Viking voyagers is, in this sense, a special case in the Viking diet. The provisions were, by necessity, preserved foods, and the image of the Norse voyagers with their provisions is one of the most famous in the medieval Scandinavian sources.
The Modern Image of Viking Food
The image of the Viking diet has drawn much modern popular interest. The image of the Viking feast, with the great hall, the chieftain, and the many courses, is one of the most famous in modern popular culture. The image of the Viking is, in many respects, the image of a people who ate and drank well, and the image has been the subject of modern interpretation.
The image has also been a focus of modern reconstruction. The Viking-Age festivals of Scandinavia, the British Isles, and North America often feature reconstructions of Viking food and drink, and the image of the Viking is, in this sense, a major part of the modern Viking revival. The reading appears in the medieval sources, and has been the subject of modern interpretation.
The Norse Table
The Norse table is, in the surviving sources, a place of community, of hospitality, of the great religious festivals. The table is the focus of the great hall, and the image of the table is the image of the Norse world. The food and drink of the table is, in this sense, the food and drink of the Norse people.
The Norse table has been the subject of modern interpretation, and the image of the Norse table is one of the most famous in the medieval Scandinavian tradition. The reading appears in the medieval sources, and has been treated in modern scholarship.