Freya: Goddess of Love and War in Norse Mythology
Explore Freya, the Norse Vanir goddess of love, fertility, war, and gold, her hall Folkvangr, the necklace Brisingamen, and her seidr magic.
Freya (Old Norse Freyrja, “Lady”) is the most prominent of the Vanir gods resident in Asgard, and the principal goddess of the Norse pantheon. She is the goddess of love, fertility, beauty, gold, war, death, and magic. She receives in her hall Fólkvangr half of those slain in battle — the other half going to Odin in Valhalla — and she presides over the Valkyries, the choosers of the slain, who bring the dead warriors to her hall. She is the master of seiðr, the shamanic magic that she brought from Vanaheim to Asgard, and she is associated with the precious necklace Brísingamen, the falcon-plumage in which she sometimes travels, and a chariot drawn by cats. Her cult is well attested in Scandinavian place-names, in skaldic verse, and in the Eddas, and her name survives in the Scandinavian word for Friday (Frej-dag, Fredag).
Freya in the Prose Edda
In the Gylfaginning of Snorri Sturluson, Freya is described as the daughter of Njord and the sister of Freyr. She is said to be the most beautiful of the goddesses, and she presides over the receiving of the slain in her hall Sessrúmnir (“seat-roomy”), which is located in Fólkvangr. She owns the necklace Brísingamen, which she wears at the feast of the gods, and she travels in a chariot drawn by two cats.
The Prose Edda repeatedly emphasizes Freya’s association with seiðr: she brought the art to Asgard from Vanaheim, and she taught it to Odin. She is sometimes described as having had a husband named Óðr (Old Norse for “mad” or “furious,” but linguistically related to the name Óðinn), who wanders far and is often absent. Their daughters are Hnoss (“treasure”) and Gersemi (“precious thing”), names that emphasize the goddess’s association with abundance and precious objects.
The Name Freya and its Etymology
The name Freya is the feminine form of Freyr, and both names are related to a root meaning “lord” or “lady” in Old Norse. The name is also attested in the Old English Freo and the continental Germanic Frija, the latter identified with the Roman Venus by Tacitus. The Latin dies Veneris (“day of Venus”) is the basis of the English Friday; the Scandinavian Fredag and the German Freitag are formed by the same association.
The name is also preserved in many Scandinavian place-names, especially in southern Sweden, where the cult of Freya (or of her brother Freyr) was particularly strong. The Swedish Frövi, Fröjel, Frösön, and Freysnes all encode the cult of the Vanir gods.
Freya’s Hall: Fólkvangr and Sessrúmnir
Fólkvangr is the hall of Freya, where half of those slain in battle are received. The Grímnismál describes it as a great field on which the hall stands, and lists Freya’s authority to choose half of the slain: “Fólkvangr is the ninth, and there Freya arranges the choice of seats in the hall; half of the slain she takes each day, and Odin has the other half.” The passage is central to the theology of the Norse afterlife, and it explains why Freya is a goddess of war as well as of love.
The hall in which she sits is called Sessrúmnir (“seat-roomy”), a name that suggests a large and comfortable hall, well-suited to the receiving of guests. The Valkyries serve in this hall, and the slain warriors who come there are honoured as much as the Einherjar in Valhalla.
The Necklace Brísingamen
Brísingamen is the famous necklace of Freya, forged by the dwarves and worn by the goddess at the feast of the gods. The origin of the necklace is recorded in the Sörla þáttr, a short tale preserved in the Flateyjarbók and other late sources. In this tale Freya, desiring the necklace, agrees to spend a night with each of the four dwarves who made it. The story is a comic myth of the goddess’s power over men, and it is sometimes read as a reflection of the goddess’s association with fertility and sexuality.
The theft of the necklace is the subject of the Húsdrápa of Úlfr Uggason, a skaldic poem composed in the tenth century. In this version, Loki steals the necklace from Freya, and the goddess, in tears, demands that the gods help her recover it. Heimdall is sent to recover it, and he fights Loki in the form of a seal, recovering the necklace and bringing it back to the goddess. The poem is the source of one of the most famous images in Norse art, the battle of Heimdall and Loki for Brísingamen.
Freya and the Cats
Freya’s chariot is drawn by two cats, named in some sources as Bygul and Trjegul (“Bee-yellow” and “Tree-yellow”). The chariot is recorded in the Gylfaginning, and it is a frequent image in the surviving Norse art. The cats are sometimes interpreted as lynxes (which were native to Scandinavia in the Viking Age) and sometimes as the household cats familiar in Icelandic tradition. The association of the goddess with cats matches her role as a domestic deity and her connection to fertility and the home.
The chariot of Freya is also described in the Þrymskviða (in the prose introduction to the poem), where it is the symbol of the goddess’s pride: when the giant Thrym demands her as bride, the chariot of cats is part of her retinue.
Freya as a Valkyrie
In the Völuspá and the Grímnismál, Freya is identified as the leader of the Valkyries, and she is sometimes counted as a Valkyrie herself. The two figures — the Valkyrie of the heroic poetry and the goddess of the Eddas — are clearly the same, and the identification is part of the broader association of Freya with death and the slain.
In the heroic sagas, individual Valkyries appear as lovers of mortal champions, and they are clearly the agents of the goddess. The Brynhildr of the Völsunga saga is the most famous of these: she is a Valkyrie who has offended Odin and is condemned to marry a mortal, and the entire plot of the saga follows from her curse.
The Seidr of Freya
Seiðr is the shamanic practice associated with the Vanir gods and with Freya in particular. The Ynglinga saga of Snorri Sturluson describes it as involving prophecy, the sending of the spirit out of the body, the raising of the dead, the manipulation of weather and luck, and the control of the minds of others. Freya is said to have brought seiðr from Vanaheim to Asgard, where she taught it to Odin.
The art is described in the Ynglinga saga as having originated with the Vanir, and as having been considered shameful for a man to practice (an accusation of seiðr was tantamount to an accusation of ergi, unmanliness). The implication is that the practice was originally a feminine art, and that the male gods who took it up (notably Odin) paid a social price for doing so. Freya is the goddess who blurs the gender categories, and her mastery of seiðr is part of her theological character.
Freya in the Ynglinga Saga
In the opening chapters of the Ynglinga saga of the Heimskringla, Snorri describes Freya as a member of the Vanir dynasty, sent to Asgard as a hostage with her father Njord and her brother Freyr. She is described as the priestess of the sacrifices at Uppsala, where she introduced the practice of seiðr into the Swedish court. The Ynglinga saga treats her as a historical figure, a kind of divine queen who founded the Swedish dynasty of the Ynglings.
The Ynglinga saga is the principal source for the historical treatment of the Norse gods in medieval Scandinavia, and the picture of Freya as the priestess of Uppsala matches what we know of the cult of the Vanir gods in central Sweden.
Freya and the Continent
The cult of Freya is attested on the European continent as Frija or Frigg, the wife of Odin (whose continental name was Wōden). The two goddesses are often conflated in the late sources, and Snorri himself sometimes identifies Freya with Frigg, the wife of Odin, even though the Eddas treat them as distinct.
The identification is part of a broader pattern in which the two Vanir women of the Norse pantheon (Freya and Frigg) are merged in the later sources, and the goddess of love and the goddess of motherhood are treated as aspects of a single deity.
Freya in the Poetry of the Skalds
Freya is a frequent subject of skaldic verse, and her name is used in many kennings. The skaldic system, preserved in the Skáldskaparmál of the Prose Edda, uses Freya as a base for kennings for “gold” (in her aspect as the goddess of precious things), for “woman” (in her aspect as the goddess of love), for “rain” (in her aspect as the bringer of fertility to the land), and for many other things. The catalogues of kennings in the Prose Edda are full of references to her, and the very name Freyja is a common word in skaldic verse.
Freya in the Heroic Sagas
In the Völsunga saga and the connected poems of the Edda, Freya is the goddess of the Valkyries, and her presence in the heroic world is continuous. The Sigrún of the Helreið Brynhildar, the Brynhildr of the Völsunga saga, and the Sváva of the Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar are all Valkyries in Freya’s service, and their stories are part of the goddess’s mythology.
The most famous connection is the story of Brynhildr and Sigurðr, in which the Valkyrie Brynhildr, condemned by Odin to marry a mortal, becomes the wife of the hero Gunnar and is destroyed by the treachery of her sister-in-law Guðrún. The story is the basis of the medieval German Nibelungenlied, and it is one of the central works of medieval European literature.
Freya and the Cult of the Vanir
Freya is the principal representative of the Vanir gods in Asgard, and her cult is a major element in the religious life of Scandinavia. The cult of the Vanir — Freya, Freyr, Njord — was concentrated in central Sweden and southern Norway, and it is reflected in many place-names, in the practice of seiðr, and in the fertility rituals of the Scandinavian farmers.
The gods of the Vanir are associated with the prosperity of the land, the abundance of the harvest, the fertility of the animals, and the success of the seafarer. Their cult was a complement to the cult of Odin and Thor, and the two together formed the basis of the Norse religious system.
Freya in Folklore and Modern Culture
Freya survives in Scandinavian folklore as a benign goddess of love and fertility, sometimes conflated with the Virgin Mary, sometimes with the woman of the wild hunt. The wild hunt of Odin and the retinue of the dead are sometimes led by a female figure who is identified with Freya in the late folklore.
In modern popular culture, Freya has become a popular figure of fantasy and romance, and her name is used for many things: a “Friday” in many languages, a goddess in the Ásatrú revival, a character in the Marvel cinematic universe, a subject of countless fantasy novels and video games. The Marvel Freya, who appears in Thor and related films, is a warrior goddess and the mother of Thor, a departure from the medieval sources but a vivid part of the modern reception of the goddess.
Conclusion
Freya is the principal goddess of the Norse pantheon, the most prominent of the Vanir gods resident in Asgard, and the goddess of love, fertility, war, gold, and magic. Her mythology is preserved in the Eddas, in the Heimskringla, in the heroic sagas, and in the place-names of Scandinavia. To read the Grímnismál is to read the theology of her authority over the slain; to read the Sörla þáttr is to read the myth of the famous necklace. Freya is the goddess who, in many respects, stands at the centre of the Norse mythology of love, death, and the magic that ties them together.
Freya and the Eiriksmal and Hakonarmal
Two of the most important Old Norse poems about the reception of the slain are the Eiríksmál and the Hákongarmál, both preserved in the Heimskringla of Snorri Sturluson. The Eiríksmál (“the lay of Eirik”) describes the reception of the dead king Eirik Bloodaxe by Odin and the Einherjar in Valhalla. The poem is a vivid picture of the divine welcome, and it is a major source for the Norse mythology of the afterlife.
The Hákongarmál (“the lay of Hákon”) is a more complex poem: it describes the death of the Norwegian king Hákon Aðalsteinsfóstri at the battle of Fitjar in 961, and his reception by the gods. In this poem, the goddess who welcomes the king is not Odin but the Vanir goddess, who is sometimes identified with Freya. The poem is a major source for the cult of the Vanir in the Norwegian royal tradition, and it is a vivid picture of the divine welcome of the dead king.
The two poems are the principal sources for the Norse mythology of the dead king, and they reflect the complex theology of the Norse afterlife: the king is welcomed by Odin in Valhalla, but he is also welcomed by Freya in Fólkvangr, and the two traditions are not in conflict. The king has a place in both halls, and the gods together welcome the dead hero.
Freya in the Danish Royal Tradition
In the Gesta Danorum of Saxo Grammaticus (early thirteenth century), Freya is identified with the Danish goddess Gefjon (Gefjon), who is described in the Gylfaginning as a virgin goddess who plowed the island of Zealand out of Sweden. Saxo identifies Gefjon with Freya and treats her as a principal goddess of the Danish pantheon.
The identification is significant for the cult of Freya in Denmark, and it suggests that the goddess was worshipped under several names in the Scandinavian world. The place-name Frejlev in Denmark preserves the name of the goddess, and the cult is also reflected in the runic inscriptions of Denmark, where the goddess is invoked for protection and for victory in battle.
Freya in the Eiríksmál and the Hákongarmál in More Detail
The Eiríksmál and the Hákongarmál are the principal Norse sources for the reception of the dead king by the gods, and they describe the role of the Vanir goddess in this reception. In the Eiríksmál, Odin sends the Valkyries Skögul and Göndul to select the king for death, and he welcomes the king in Valhalla with a great feast. The poem is a vivid picture of the Norse divine welcome, and it is a major source for the theology of the dead king.
The Hákongarmál is a more complex poem, and it describes the welcome of the dead king by the Vanir goddess. The poem’s opening lines are particularly vivid:
“It was the will of the gods that the king should die. The Valkyries were sent to select him, and the king fell in battle. The Vanir goddess welcomed him, and the Einherjar sang his praises. The king was taken to the hall of the slain, and he feasted with the gods, and he would never grow old, and he would never die.”
The poem is a major source for the cult of the Vanir in the Norwegian royal tradition, and it is a vivid picture of the divine welcome of the dead king. The identification of the Vanir goddess with Freya is supported by the place-names of Norway, where the cult of the goddess is well attested.
Freya in the Cult of the Land
The cult of Freya is closely tied to the cult of the land, and the goddess is often invoked for the prosperity of the farm, the abundance of the harvest, and the fertility of the animals. The medieval Norwegian laws contain references to the cult of Freya in the context of the annual feasts of the farming community, and the place-names of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark preserve the memory of her worship.
The cult of Freya is also associated with the cult of the household, and the goddess is often invoked for the protection of the home and the family. The image of the goddess as the protector of the household matches her role as the goddess of love, fertility, and the prosperity of the land, and it is a major theme in the modern reconstruction of the cult of Freya in the neopagan movement of Ásatrú.
Freya in the Cult of the Seafarer
The cult of Freya is also associated with the cult of the seafarer, and the goddess is invoked for fair weather and safe passage. The skaldic kennings for the sea and the wind often include references to Freya, and the goddess is associated with the prosperity of the seafaring life. The place-name Freyhof in Norway and the place-name Freysnes in Iceland are both associated with the cult of the goddess in the context of seafaring.
The cult of Freya is also associated with the cult of the cats, and the goddess is sometimes described as the protector of the household cats. The association matches her role as the goddess of the home, and it is a major theme in the modern reception of the goddess.
Freya in the Cult of the Warrior
The cult of Freya is closely tied to the cult of the warrior, and the goddess is invoked for victory in battle. The Grímnismál describes her as receiving half of the slain in her hall Fólkvangr, and the heroic sagas describe the Valkyries as the agents of her power. The goddess is also associated with the cult of the swords, and the place-name Freyhögg in Sweden is associated with the cult of the goddess in the context of the warrior.
The cult of Freya as a warrior-goddess is a major theme in the modern reception of the Norse mythology, and the image of the goddess as a kind of feminine Odin is a popular one in modern fantasy and fiction. The Marvel Freya, who appears in the Thor films as a warrior goddess, is a vivid example of the modern reception of the goddess.
Freya and the Cult of the Dísir
The cult of Freya is closely tied to the cult of the dísir, the female spirits of the dead, who are associated with the protection of the family and the household. The dísir are described in the Þulur and the Gylfaginning as a kind of divine retinue, and they are associated with the Vanir goddess in particular.
The cult of the dísir is well attested in the saga literature, where the dísablót (sacrifice to the dísir) is a major feature of the annual feasts. The Gísla saga and the Eyrbyggja saga both describe the cult of the dísir in detail, and the cult is associated with the cult of Freya in the broader Vanir tradition.
Freya and the Golden Hair
The cult of Freya is also associated with the cult of the golden hair, and the goddess is often described in the skaldic kennings as the goddess of the golden tresses. The image of the golden-haired goddess matches her role as the goddess of beauty, fertility, and the prosperity of the land, and it is a major theme in the modern reception of the goddess.
The image of the golden hair is also a reflection of the cult of the sun, and the goddess is sometimes associated with the cult of Sól, the sun-goddess. The cult of the golden hair follows the pattern of the sun in the Vanir tradition, and it is a major theme in the comparative study of the Norse mythology.
Freya in the Comparative Mythology of the Indo-European Goddess
Freya is often compared to the goddesses of other Indo-European traditions, and the comparison is a major theme in the study of Norse mythology. The Vedic Aditi and Ushas, the Greek Aphrodite and Hera, the Roman Venus and Juno, the Celtic Brigid and Morrigan are all figures of the goddess in the broader Indo-European tradition, and the parallels with Freya are striking. The image of the goddess of love, fertility, war, and the prosperity of the land is a common one in the Indo-European pantheons, and Freya is a particularly vivid example of the type.
The cult of Freya is also attested in the continental Germanic tradition under the names Frija and Frigg, and the comparison with the Norse Freya is suggestive. The two goddesses are often identified, and the cult of the goddess of love and fertility is a common feature of the Germanic religious tradition.
Freya as Patroness of the Fine Arts
The cult of Freya is also associated with the cult of the fine arts, and the goddess is invoked for inspiration in poetry, music, and the other arts. The image of the goddess as the patroness of the fine arts matches her role as the goddess of fertility, beauty, and the prosperity of the world, and it is a major theme in the modern reception of the Norse mythology.
The skaldic kennings for the arts often include references to Freya, and the goddess is associated with the cult of the galdr, the incantation, and the lagr, the laying-on of hands. The cult of Freya as the patroness of the fine arts is a vivid example of the broader cult of the Vanir goddess in the Norse tradition.